Approaches to the Prehistory of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region

Gamini Adikari

When compared with prehistoric research undertaken so far, there is some special significance in this study, in that it is the first systematic and extensive research of its kind in an area in Sri Lanka where inland ‘Dry Zone’ environmental and geographical conditions prevail. Almost all prehistoric re­ search earned out in Sri Lanka previously has been confined to the low country Wet Zone, the central highlands and the southern coastal belt (Pole 1907; Seligmann 1908; Parker 1909; Hartley 1913; Wayland 1914; Sarasin 1926; Hocart 1928; Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1937; Allchin 1958; Deraniyagala, S.U. 1980,1988 and Deraniyagala, S.U. and Kennedy 1972). Therefore investigations into a new and important aspect of Sri Lanka’s prehistory have been initiated by this study of the prehistoric culture of the Dry Zone heartland of Sri Lanka.

This paper presents a brief review of the results of research conducted into the prehistory of the Sigiriya area. In this re­ search program, attention has been focused on factors such as the location of prehistoric sites within the area, the micro-en­ vironmental conditions and the nature of cultural and natural finds discovered at those sites etc.

It is a basic assumption that the emergence and character of prehistoric settlements in any given area reflect a definite con­ nection with the physical environment of that area. Hence the necessity to pay attention to the environment and geography of the area under study. Previous research conducted on these subjects relevant to this area (Vitanage 1959; Domros 1974; Epitawatte 1989) were made use of in interpreting the finds for the purpose of this study. A recent floristic survey of the area (Epitawatte and Premathilake unpubl.) and of ancient faunal remains of the area (Karunaratne unpubl.) were of consider­ able help in analysing some of the data for this study.

Geological parameters

Prehistoric sites situated in the area belong to two major types i.e. cave dwellings and open air sites. Our excavations indi­ cate that natural rock shelters, situated on elevated rock-knob erosional remnants, were regularly used as living places by prehistoric man in this, as often in other regions of Sri Lanka. In the geological formation of the country, the Highland series has been responsible for the creation of a large number of caves in the area (Cooray 1990). In contrast, all examples of the open air sites indicate they have been used as hunting grounds and/or as places for the production of implements.

Figure 3:1 Millagala (SO. 35) in 1990. View from north-west towards Sigiriya rock. Photo: Mats Mogren.

Cave sizes

Rock shelters within the study area can be preliminarily sub­ divided into three main groups, according to their size- and disposition. Since there is clear evidence to conclude that natural rock shelters in the area were frequently used as prehistoric dwellings, it was considered that in a number of such caves their floor areas provided some indicators of the numerical strength of the groups of people who occupied these caves at different times.

Using this hypothesis as a basic factor, the entire sample of caves in the area was classified as cluster caves, single line caves or solitary caves. Caves concentrated at certain elevated locations, like those at Sigiriya and Potana, were described as ‘cluster caves’. The best example of ‘single-line caves’ is found on the upper terrace at Dambulla, but Pidurangala also belongs to this group. Such caves are situated in a single line, or row. At both Dambulla and Pidurangala, it is feasible to speak of cluster caves as well. It can be surmised that these two types, i.e. cluster caves and single-line caves, may have accommodated, or had the potential of accommodating, a lar­ ger number of occupants during the time they were in use, than the solitary caves, situated in places like Aligala, which ex­ emplify the third category: the solitary caves.

Open air sites

Three open air sites can be identified in the area: Millagala, Tammannagala and Mapagala. Open air sites of this nature are located in close proximity to natural depressions at ave­ rage groundlevel, where small pools or lakes are formed or near-natural water reserves and rock pools on the summits of rocks which do not exceed 20m above ground level. It can be thought that these water resources may have been one of the fundamental environmental factors that facilitated the use of such open spaces as prehistoric hunting grounds. Excavations for prehistoric studies were not carried out at any of the sites identified as open air sites in the area.

Excavations

Natural rock shelters at three selected sites - Aligala, Dambul­la and Pidurangala - were subjected to excavation. The Dam­ bulla and Pidurangala excavations were carried out as parts of the KAVA collaboration project, whereas Aligala was ex­ cavated under the SARCP program. At the time the Potana cave was identified as a prehistoric site, it had been dug up for the construction of a building. This excavation was not sub­ ject to archaeological control and documentation and only the nature of the natural and cultural finds unearthed were reported. It was by the chance of seeing the debris thrown up by labourers, digging the cave floor for laying the foundation of a building, that the Potana cave was identified as a prehis­ toric site. Within the SARCP framework it was possible to investigate the remaining deposits.

Figure 3:2 Map showing prehistoric study locations of research area.

Aligala

This natural rock shelter is situated on the slope of the eastern side of the Sigiriya rock. The inner extent of the cave is 41m2. The maximum height is 6m. The mouth of the cave faces east. It is situated at an estimated elevation of about 35-40m above the average ground level of the area. No dripledge is carved above the mouth of the cave. An area of 64m2 within the cave was subjected to excava­ tion. The total number of activity phases (deposited layers) is four, with a total depth of 1.70m. The contexts were numbered from the surface downwards (see matrix chart, fig. 4:6). The fourth layer, situated at a depth of 1.50m from the surface, is an undisturbed prehistoric deposit. A considerable amount of stone implements was found in this layer. I The third layer is 10cm thick. The compact nature of the layer shows that it is an undisturbed deposit. This layer can be described as a short term abandonment, or a residual layer created as a result of sudden and heavy rain. No cultural debris whatsoever was found in this layer.

The second layer contained cultural debris. The peculiar fact about this layer is that prehistoric artefacts are found at its lower levels, while historic remains are found at the surface levels. There is reason to believe that the second layer repre­ sents a transitional stage.

The first layer contains only historic artefacts. The few stone implements appearing in layer 1 and 2 point to their being disturbed layers. This disturbance could have occurred layer level were identifiable in the profile. Such pits are indi­ cated as context nos. 2,3, 8 in the matrix chart.

The following are the cultural debris found from the layers:

figure 3:3 Pidurangala rock shelter. Site plan

Pidurangala

Excavations were carried out in the natural rock shelters on the north and west surfaces of the rock outcrop called Pid­ urangala, situated about 500m north of the Sigiriya rock. The total number of caves excavated was three. The prehistoric artefacts found in all three caves are similar in quality. Res­ ults of research in the upper cave of Pidurangala, where historic artefacts are found in a higher density than the two lower caves, are described below. The cave at the highest level is larger than the others. The length of this cave is 40m, while the roof is 7m high, measured from the bedrock. The mouth of the cave faces east. There is a dripledge carved above the opening of the cave. There is an inscription belong­ ing to the 4th century AD carved on the rock opposite the cave. The central portion of the cave had been converted intoan image house in the historic period. Three layers were found during the excavation of this cave. All three layers contained cultural debris.

It is the third layer which can be described more specifical­ ly as the prehistoric layer. It is situated at a depth of about 50cm from the surface. Beside stone implements, no other

cultural debris was found in this layer. The second layer is entirely a layer of ash. The first layer contains a large quantity of potsherds and other objects belo­ nging to the historic period. But several stone implements too, were found in that layer itself. This is due to disturbances in the layers. Because the depth from surface level to the prehis­ toric layer is very slight, there is a strong possibility of layers mixing with one another. There is evidence to believe that the earth of the third layer may have been disturbed, owing to loose soil caused by the lighting of fires on that layer.

The following are the cultural debris found in each layer:

Figure 3:4 Pidurangala rock shelter. Test pit profile from north with a section of the rock

Dambulla

Figure 3:5 Dumbulla site plan. Inset map of main rock shelter

A test pit 2x2m was started on the terrace opposite the second cave of the Buddhist monastery called Rangiri Dambulu Vih- araya (see fig. 3:5). There was no possibility of any large scale excavation work in the cave itself, since it is currently used as an image house. A total of three layers was found in the excavation. The third layer contained only prehistoric stone implements. Apart from that, no other cultural remains were found there. Beneath this layer is bedrock. The second layer had been subjected to subsequent disturbances. Among the cultural debris found were potsherds belonging to the 20th century and flat tiles of an earlier period. No cultural debris was found in the first layer, which is a filled layer, probably a part of the architectural plan of the complex.

Exploration

Sites showing geographical features conducive to occupation and resources exploitation were systematically surveyed, to obtain evidence of prehistoric, temporary, or seasonal hunt­ ing grounds, open air sites and production sites in the area. Rocks and villus and natural water holes, situated at 3-30m level above average ground level, were paid attention to in the research. It is difficult to understand the prehistoric fac­ tors on the surface of open air sites. These could be caused by various geophysical activities. Stone implements which do not decay quickly were taken as evidence to identify these sites.

The three open air sites of Millagala, Mapagala and Tam- mannagala were surveyed in this manner. Compared with the natural cave dwellings, these are very few in number. Marked differences were not observed among the open air sites, but according to surface collections and the nature of their loca­ tion, minor differences were visible. The important factor, revealed on a careful observation of these sites and their sur­roundings, is that to a large extent they are protected locations,

connected to natural water reserves and waterways. The na­ ture of each place is given below:

Mapagala

Figure 3:6 Millagala site plan.

Mapagala, an isolated inselberg towering about 30m above the plain, stands 500m to the south of Sigiriya rock. The old Yan Oya, today known as the Sigiri Oya, flows south of Mapagala. The summit of Mapagala, an almost flat area of 1000m . which slopes gently to the south, is dotted with natural depressions, where water is obtainable even during severe droughts. This location has all the classical features that sets it apart as an ideal choice for a hunting ground and open air site by prehistoric man (see fig. 9:3).

Surface collection

At Mapagala too, as with other tropical prehistoric occupa­ tion sites, fewer bone remains were found at open air sites than in rock shelters. Stone implements and fragments of stone debris from tool production were the only major finds.

Tammannagala

Situated about l/2km west of Sigiriya, Tammannagala rock, which is 60m long and about 30m wide, rises about 20m above the plain. Explorations of its summit and surroundings yielded a large amount of quartz chips and flakes, among which a few stone implements were identifiable. Quartz is not common in this area, so the presence of such quartz flakes undeniably proves prehistoric human activity in this area. We can conjecture that the Sigiri Oya (old Yan Oya) which flows about 300m east of the rock, must have been the source of raw material for the production of stone imple­ ments. Talkote Ihalavava is situated in close proximity, about 100m north of Tammannagala. Considering the presence of quartz flakes and the proximity to Talkote Ihalavava, interest­ ing problems can be addressed regarding the possibility of a continuous development from camp-sites to sedentary, agr­rian habitation sites, and also the origin of the gamgoda.

Millagala

This rock slab is about 8-10m high. The Pidurangala cave complex, which is situated about 200m east of the rock, is the most prominent feature of the surrounding landscape. The Sigiriya Oya flows about 100m west of Millagala. The Pidu- rangalavava, which is in close proximity to Millagala, is a construction of the modem period (see fig. 3:6). During ex­ plorations, a large number of quartz flakes were discovered strewn around the base of the rock. The rock pools at the summit attract jungle animals. The evidence indicates that this site may have been used for the production of imple­ ments and hunting by those prehistoric communities that set­ tled in the Pidurangala caves. Quartz flakes, found in large quantities upon the rock slab, indicate they are debris from the production of implements. Among them are a few fragments of broken implements.

Prehistoric implements

Prehistoric implements were found at all sites explored and excavated. This sample of implements is taken as a whole and its special features are discussed here.

Three types of raw material have been used in the produc­ tion of implements: two basic minerals, quartz and chert; and animal bones. The bone implements found are preserved well enough to give an idea of which parts of animal skeletons were used for tool making. Decay had changed the basic shape of most of the bone tools.

Implements from each field varied according to the raw material used. The density of the implements of various mat­ erials found at each site, is given in the table below.

Although these stone and bone implements were used for different purposes, they can be discussed under five major categories, depending on utility and shape. They are: scrapers, pointed tools for boring and piercing, blades or cutters used for cutting, grinding stones and pitted stones. Evidence has been found that the implements were used as sub-types of these major categories. Therefore it seems they were used for special functions.

Figure 3:7Artefact distribution ofAligala excavation in 1990.

On reviewing the physical and cultural data discussed ab­ ove, several definite conclusions and hypotheses can be ar­ rived at, the most important being the concept of ancient settlements in the research aretf'. Considering the evidence from this’research, together with the prehistoric factors dis­ covered in other parts of the island, it is acceptable that this area under study was settled by a people belonging to the mesolithic culture, at least 3000 years ago.

On an analysis of certain factors found at some sites, there is indirect evidence to conclude that the environmental ph­ enomena of those ancient settlements was somewhat different from that found today.

The non-availability of sufficient data to reconstruct either the physical aspect or the social behavioural patterns of the groups of people in those settlements, was the basic obstacle in bringing the story of the prehistory of the area to a complete and logical conclusion. Up to now, there has been no evidence whatsoever from which to describe the physical appearance of Lankan mesolithic man. At Potana, however, two skeletons have been found, which may prove to be very important in this sense. They appear to have been buried in layers proceed­ ing a 14C-dated layer from ca 3,800 BC (see 14C-datings" this volume).

Faunal remains of species of snails from certain sites can be identified as water-related creatures (Karunaratne, P.B. un- publ.). The implication of this is that the hunter gatherers may have collected food for the group from wet areas, and brought it back to their homes. Or it could be that the contemporary environment was more humid and conducive to water snails than it is today. The recent theories on the possible distances that prehistoric man might have travelled in a day for his sustenance (Vita-Finzi 1978), cannot be applied with certainty to ascertain how far these particular human groups must have migrated to roach wet climatic areas, in search of food. This varies, depending on the quantity of foodstuff available.

The fact that no thick layers of ash have been discovered in any cave, gives rise to the hypothesis that those places were not used continuously as dwelling places. Instances of one dwelling being re-settled again are very rare, but at Aligala an abandonment phase is clearly visible between two mesolithic deposits (see Karunaratne and Adikari this volume). The evidence so far gathered is not sufficient to form any definite idea of the prehistoric population pattern and its expansion. Nevertheless the site pattern can be understood very roughly.

Factors such as scarcity of samples and suitable scientific dating, the impact of present settlements brought about by urbanization of many of the prehistoric sites, of the sites being covered by thick jungle, of constant disturbances caused to the layers by wild beasts, and the inability to do continuous ex­ cavations (at sites) are responsible for the unconnected ep­ isodes in the story of the prehistory of the area - a saga which has neither a clear beginning nor a clear end. But the indis­ putable fact remains that the earliest settler in the Sigiriya- Dambulla area used microlithic stone implements, and pursued hunting and gathering for his sustenance.

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Figure 3.8 Pidurangala rock seen flrom the east upper cave of the complex seen aboue the three Photo IS Madanayake