Objectives, Methods, Constraints and

Perspectives MATS MOGREN

The general objectives for the Settlement Archaeology Program for the Sigiriya-Dambulla region were outlined in the first publication of the project (Mogren 1990). There was neither a tenable reason to change these general objectives, nor to alter the delineated research area that was chosen: the ‘Sigiri Bim’ (Bandaranayake 1990: 21; Mogren 1990: 53-54) when preparing the second and third fieldwork seasons. Well in advance of the outset of the 1989 field season, a three-stage education and research program was set up, com­ prising the survey work already completed in 1988 and con­ tinued into 1989, test-excavations to fill up the remainder of the 1989 season and a large-scale excavation stage scheduled for 1990. When this three-stage program was completed, a series of supplementary and specifically problem-oriented fie­ ldwork projects were planned, based on the experiences and results of the previous three years. Above all else we decided to work up and publish the results of the project in 1992 and 1993

c Partly owing to the constraints laid upon the 1989 fiel­d work, as explained below, it was quite clear by the end of the 1989 season however, that the entire research area could not be covered within the intended limits of the project (in spite of the fact that the program had been extended from 5 to 6 years). We did not want to confine ourselves to a spatial survey for sites, as the constraints of those years would have forced us had we maintained the intention to cover the entire ‘Sigiri Bim’. Having to take educational as well as scientific aspects into consideration, the three-stage program was settled on once and for all. The unstable situation at the outset of the season neces­ sitated some major changes in the field program outlined in the first publication (Mogren 1990). The field season of 1989, that was planned for eight weeks, from August 28 to October 20, was crippled from the start by a week-long work stoppage at national level and subsequent tensions connected to the prevailing situation in Sri Lanka at that time. Fieldwork com­ menced on September 11 and was re-phased to go on until October 27, thus giving seven weeks in the field. Violence

broke out in the central part of the research area on October s, followed by a noticeable rise in tension in the area. This made it necessary to change our plans anew. The program was halted on October 18, with only minor tasks lingering on. Thus, the main share of the fieldwork for 1989 was effectively done in only five weeks. The objectives for the period comprised: (a) continuation of the general survey of 1988 in the Mirisgoni Oya basin and the northern part of the Sigiri Oya basin; (b) a re-survey of sections of the southern Sigiri Oya basin, using the field-walk­ ing methods of the Kiri Oya survey of 1988; (c) mapping of the monastic complexes of Ramakale and Pidurangala; (d) continuation of the work in the Eastern Precinct of Sigiriya; (e) an extensive test excavation program including sites in the Kiri Oya basin as well as the Sigiri Oya basin; (f) a planned coring program comprising about 25 irrigation tanks, in order to ob­ tain material for macro-fossil analysis as well as for the dating of the tanks; (g) an extensive spatial and technological study of the irrigation system of the area; (h) an ethno-archaeological study of methods and technology of food procurement; (i) a sub-program of iron production studies, confined mainly to the Kiri Oya basin; and (j) the commencement of an ecology program for the study of vegetation, soils, hydrology, climate and mineral resources of the area. With the unstable situation prevailing during 1989, it was decided to postpone all work in peripheral areas and, instead, to intensify work in closer proximity to the Sigiriya complex. Thus, the general survey and the test excavations in the Kiri Oya basin had to be left out completely, and adjustments had to be made in the irrigation study. The iron production study was postponed until the 1990 season (see below). The mapping of Ramakale and Pidurangala was intended to commence in May 1989, but could not be started until September 11, owing to the unstable situation in the preceding months. Thus, no work was done in the Pidurangala complex during the main field season. It was carried out in May and June 1990 instead. The mapping of Ramakale was stopped temporarily in late October, but was recommenced and com­ pleted during November and December. The coring program too, had to be postponed, owing to security constraints and lack of necessary equipment. Of the different areas of the ecology program only the vegetation survey could be commenced. In advance of the 1990 season another attempt was made to implement a coring program, but neither the necessary equipment, nor the know how required to run it, was available.

During the 1990 fieldwork season it was decided to let that third season become the last of the general, or ‘ground-level’, field-school in settlement archaeology, and to shift emphasis to a ‘dissertation-oriented’ program from 1991 onwards. As a result it became apparent that a coring program would have to be abandoned. This is regrettable indeed, and the necessity of such an investigation still remains (Mogren 1990: 58). So far this is the sole major setback of the project, but attempts to solve the problems regarding dating, construction and decline of tanks have been made during the 1989-1991 seasons, using alternative methods (see below and Myrdal this volume). The results of these studies will be published as a separate volume (Myrdal forthcoming). As was originally planned, the main emphasis during the 1989 season was on test excavations, but these were to be confined to the Sigiriya environs. The focus of attention for the intensified survey, the ethno-archaeological and the irrigation studies, was the village of Talkote.

Objectives for 1990

Even though the adjustments and ad-hoc solutions of the 1989 season had changed the pre-requisites of the continua­ tion of the program considerably, it was decided to stick to the original plan of making the third field season the culmina­ tion of the ‘field-school’, by carrying out a number of large scale excavations comprising different types of sites and the initiation of the iron-production sub-program (see below). Further to this, surveying and test excavations were to be continued on a limited scale and the ethno-archaeology and irrigation studies were to be continued as parallel sub-pr­ ograms. As the security situation had changed radically for the better in the research area after May 1990, the planned pro­ gram was carried out successfully.

METHODOLOGY OF THE 1989 AND 1990 FIELDWORK

Team formation 1989

Apart from the Swedish consultants, the 1989 field team con­ sisted of 35 Lankan participants drawn from the PGIAR, four different universities, the Sigiriya Cultural Triangle Project, the Archaeological Department and the Institute of Fun­ damental Studies. The team included two drivers as well. The team was headed by Raj Somadeva, Assistant Lec­ turer at the PGIAR. Eva Myrdal of the University of Gothen­ burg and the present writer, an Executive Research Officer at the Swedish Central Board of National Antiquities, formed the consultant component of the team who - together with Raj Somadeva - provided the main field direction.

The team was divided into four sub-units:

I. The Agro-technology and Irrigation Survey Unit, working mainly in and around Talkote, carrying out a re-exploration of that area.

II. The Rural Settlement Unit, working on test excava­ tions mainly in the Talkote area.

III. The Urban Settlement Unit, working with survey­ ing and test excavations in the Eastern Precinct of the Sigiriya complex.

IV. The Ramakale Complex Mapping Unit, which in­ cluded the vegetation survey.

These units were supported by a Small Finds and Pottery Recording Unit and a photographer. In Colombo, an oste­ ologist worked on the bone material from the excavations. Additionally, nearly fifty labourers were connected to the field team.

Figure 2:2 Map showing 1989 work sites.

Team formation 1990

As in previous years, the team was drawn from archaeo­ logists, graduates and undergraduates from the PGLAR, the universities (mostly Kelaniya and Peradeniya), the Archae­ ological Department, the Cultural Triangle and the Institute of Fundamental Studies. Raj Somadeva headed the field team this season. Mats Mogren, Eva Myrdal and Svante Forenius, an Executive Research Officer of the Swedish Central Board of National Antiquities, acted as consultants who provided field direction. Dag Noreus, of the Department of Structural Chemistry at Stockholm University, and Gert Magnusson, of the Department of Archaeology of Stockholm University, were attached as special consultants to the iron production sub-project. The team numbered 53 persons, excluding consultants and field directors. Of these, 46 persons worked throughout the field season. About 50 labourers also worked in the project. Six sub-units were set up:

I. The Tammannagala Village Settlement Excavation Unit.

II. The Aligala Pre-historic Camp-site Excavation U- nit. `.

III. The Mapagala Central Place Excavation Unit.

IV. The Dehigaha-ala-kanda Iron Production Site Ex­ cavation Unit.

V. The Survey and Mapping Unit.

VI. The Ethno-archaeology and Irrigation Survey Unit

These units were supported by additional personnel carrying out pottery analysis, bone analysis and special photography. Each sub-unit was headed by one or two experienced Lankan team members. Svante Forenius worked as a consultant with sub-unit IV, and Eva Myrdal likewise with sub-unit VI. Mats Mogren and Raj Somadeva, chief co-ordinator of the fiel­ dwork, acted as consultants to the other sub-units.

Field-walking

In the field season of 1988, the general survey for sites in the Kiri Oya basin was carried out. Applying the combined me­ thods of interviewing villagers and extensive field-walking, accessible tracts of land were covered. In the Sigiri Oya and Mirisgoni Oya basins, the interview method only was used (Mogren 1990: 54-55; Manatunga 1990: 78). The result was a different settlement pattern in the Kiri Oya basin from that in the other basins. In the second field season an attempt was made to test these findings - as to whether this was due to the fact that the western basins are predominantly tank-irrigated areas, whereas the tanks in the Kiri Oya basin are few, since water is available

Figure 2:3 Map showing 1990 work sites.

through perennial natural springs; 9r, on the other hand, wh­ ether the differing results were due to the difference in the method applied. The area chosen for this survey was an area of appr­ oximately 8km2, comprising the combined catchment and co­ mmand areas of the irrigation tanks belonging to Talkote village, currently in use, as well as those now abandoned, with the addition of the Pidurangala Temple tank and the Sigiri Oya stream bed within the Talkote area. The plotting of sites, as well as tanks and canals, was done in the field on enlarged aerial photographs with a scale of approximately 1:4000. Before the 1988 season only one site, SO. 10, was known to archaeologists (Bandaranayake 1984: 5). Applying the in­ terview method in the 1988 fieldwork, another eight sites were found. The field-walking method applied in 1989 added an­ other 35 sites within that area. (During 1990 an additional 12 sites were registered). The results of the survey will be given more elaborately elsewhere in this volume (Mogren: "The Archaeology of Ta­ lkote"), but in evaluating the methodology that was used, some general conclusions can be made: no other method can replace field-walking. Any spatial analysis must be founded on exten­ sive explorations on foot. It must be evident to anyone that 44 (or 56) sites in a given area tell more about settlement structure than 9. The argument that good results can be obtained by compil­ ing results from old reports and studying available maps and aerial photographs is, to a great extent, a misconception. The one-inch-to-a-mile maps are of little use for this purpose, as they give a good general view of the area studied, but the scale is much too small for accurate plotting of sites. Furthermore, apart from the fact that roads and village sites have been moved in the three decades since the maps were drawn and printed, it is evident that one has to contend with a certain degree of negligence in the detail plotting of features like medium and small-size irrigation tanks, not to mention all the tanks omitted by the survey. The surveyors, of course, cannot be blamed for not paying enough respect to the demands of future archaeologists; but it would be wise in the future not to rely solely on the one-inch maps for the plotting of sites. So, for want of reliable maps, one must fall back on aerial photographs. These have been in use since the 1989 field season. In most cases sites could be plotted with an accuracy within a few meters, without theodolite or tape, owing to the fact that features like separate buildings, rocks, or even trees, could be identified in the photographs. Though the aerial ph­ otographs are absolutely indispensable for this kind of work, a word of caution must be given. We have found that even though they give an excellent and detailed view of the present cultural landscape, they may not reflect the whole picture of the past cultural landscape, a fact that could direct the ar­ chaeological exploration away from certain areas, in a situa­ tion where time and resources are limited, which in turn will give a spatial analysis of a corroborative nature. One very glaring example of this is given in the Talkote report (Mogren below). Between the Talkote Pahalavava and the Pidurangala Pahalavava, a vast cultural landscape has be­ gun to emerge around the abandoned Siyambalankoratuva- vava, one of the largest tanks of Talkote, but nothing of this cultural landscape, not even the presence of the ancient tank, was discernible from the aerial photographs. In evaluating the method it can be established that there really is a difference between the settlement patterns of the Kiri Oya basin and the Sigiri Oya basin, largely due to the differing means of water supply; but field-walking has shown that the picture is much more complex, both in a spatial and a diachronic sense, than that of the general taken-for-granted view of a ‘one-village-one-tank’ pattern that is predominant in much of the geographical and historical literature on the sub­ ject published to date.

Apart from the Talkote survey, a minor survey on foot was carried out in the environs of Nagalavava monastery and vil­ lage. Prior to 1988, only the monastic site was known to archaeologists; and in 1988 one settlement site was enco­ untered. In 1989, six more sites were found in the vicinity. This minor survey could comprise the nucleus for a major exploration of the Talkote type. Considering the source-critical aspects of the 1989 field­ walking, it must be stated that just as in the 1988 Kiri Oya survey, the emerging pattern of some areas may be showing accessible areas as much as a true settlement pattern (changes over time disregarded). This is especially true of the areas around Siyambalankoratuvavava and Halmillavava, where the dense scrub vegetation made a thorough exploration and ac­ curate plotting of tanks impossible. During 1990, when the team started to take an interest in the paddy fields, yet another methodological advance regard­ ing field-walking was made. The paddy fields between the Sigiri Oya and the Talkote-Kimbissa road were chosen for a very thorough field-walking exploration by sub-unit VI. The choice was based on indications of habitational remains in the area. Several sites were found, interpreted as being parts of the Sigiriya urban habitational area. These results have further highlighted the risk that archaeologists run in taking the cul­ tural landscape for granted (Mogren: "The Archaeology of Talkote" this volume). With regard to the case of the deposition-erosion problem, other source-critical considerations discussed in the first publi­ cation of the project (Mogren 1990) are still valid. The er- osional processes which have altered the course of the Sigiri Oya, notably in the area west and north-west of the Sigiriya garden complex, have revealed a few sites along the old st­ ream bed with a dense scatter of pottery, also chert and quartz flakes and possibly buried cultural layers. This hinted of a buried cultural landscape, which, if fully revealed, will make the settlement pattern even more complex. The presence of several prehistoric sites in the area stresses the complexity further (see Adikari this volume). This will have to be a task for future research. One also has to consider the fact that this survey was made during the last weeks of the dry season and the very first rains of the Maha season (the north-east monsoon). For various reasons, this period seems to provide optimum conditions for exploration on foot. One area-specific aspect is that the stream beds, as in the Sigiri Oya, must be explored in advance of the date when Mahavali water is led in, at the outset of the Maha season. Another aspect is that undergrowth is very sparse in the dry season, so that pottery, iron slag etc. are easily detectable when field-walking. After the first few showers, vegetation growth

makes it difficult to explore the area. There is, however, one great advantage in those first rains: the possibility of detecting hidden structures through crop-marks. This was dramatically enhanced after the second rain shower of the 1989 season, when site SO. 26 was revisited. The site was recorded at the first visit as a stone pillar structure, about 5x6m in extent. After the first rains there were wall-lines of a 10x18m structure, clearly visible as an area devoid of vegetation (see fig. 6:4 in Mogren: "The Archaeology of Talkote" below). This also stresses the necessity for revisiting sites. It is indeed vain to think that everything that can be known about a site, without digging, is at hand after the first visit. All the sites of the study area around Talkote were visited at least twice, and in nearly all those cases some new information was added at the second visit, mainly due to variable conditions like vegetation, angle of sunlight etc. Just as in 1988, sites were designated as areas with a fair amount of pottery, lithic artefacts, iron slag, scattered tile pi­ eces and/or bricks. Sites with structural remains, such as stone pillars, and in a few cases sites with a tradition of having been settlements were considered as sites too. Sampling was done whenever necessary. Some field-walking explorations were carried out in the Eastern Precinct of the Sigiriya complex as well. In this case the method was somewhat different: the crest of the inner ramparts was followed in its entire length, by cutting the scrub vegetation; and finally the whole area within the ramparts was covered in one single sweep, carried out by a chain of around 40 people (Karunaratne this volume). It is apparent, and naturally so, that after a few years of work with the archaeological landscape and its remains, as our knowledge grows deeper and wider our views of the sites are changing too. This is a natural part of the research process: a process that never comes to a halt. Thus, an interpretation of a site or a pattern that is published or presented to colleagues and the public, in some form, should always be seen as a mere take-off for further research, never* as an absolute fact, or termination of study. It must be understood, therefore, that no matter how many times one returns to a given site, it does not represent a truly complete understanding of a past reality. This fact has been reiterated many times during the course of the project, espe­ cially with regard to concepts like settlement patterns, site clusters, etc. The Kiri Oya survey, carried out in 1988, pr­ ovided a rather substantial amount of material which was very tempting for use in spatial analyses. A few attempts were made to delineate clusters, forming a modular settlement pat­ tern (Manatunga 1990: 74, 78-80; Mogren 1990: 50), but as research proceeded, the complexity of settlement patterns em­ erged, both in the Kiri Oya valley and other parts of our research area. So, it is very evident that the validity of earlier interpretations can and should be questioned. One can still talk generally of a modular pattern, but the concept of site clusters should be used with caution, and cluster delineation, it must be understood, can be nothing but tentative sketches at the present level of knowledge. The complexity of the settlement patterns of the western basins is discussed below (Mogren: "The Ar­ chaeology of Talkote" this volume).

Irrigation and agro-technological studies

Irrigation studies in the research area have been concentrated on two main objects: the tank system of Talkote (including the Sigiri Mahavava) and the abandoned canal complex be­ tween Vavala and the Sigiriya-Diyakapilla road. The study of the irrigation system of Talkote has two aspects: the spatial aspect was covered through field-walking in combination with the exploration for sites (see above). All the irrigation tanks of the study area, both abandoned and in use, that are known by name to the villagers of Talkote, were visited and plotted with the aid of the aerial photographs. The main direction of water flow, the location of sluices in use and remnants of ancient sluices were marked. A tank, abandoned for a time long enough for the ‘village memory’ to forget even its name, was also encountered during the field-walking. The main difficulty of this spatial study was to delineate the high water areas of abandoned tanks. The Halmillavava and the Siyambalankoratuvavava presented difficulties beca­ use of dense vegetation. To get an estimate of the tank areas is of relevance to our study, as there seems to be a rough correla­ tion between tank area and the extent of paddy lands watered by the tank (see Myrdal below). One way of doing it could be through a series of near infra-red aerial photographs, taken at different times of the year. This would undoubtedly reveal any undetected tanks as well. There is a strong possibility that there might be several micro-tanks in the area, such as the Kotalahimbutugahavava, which have been forgotten by the villagers. This will have to be an objective for future work in the area, as its implementation will not be possible within the limited scope of the present project. Special attention has been given to what may be called the micro-level of village irrigation systems: vav kotu and amunu, which are in fact reservoirs of much smaller size than a vava. These have played an important role in the irrigation systems of wet rice culture. This study has, to a great extent, been true pioneering work, as there seems to be a general silence regard­ ing these minor reservoirs in the literature on the subject. The aspects of labour input and supportive capacity of tank irrigation were covered through interviews with vel vidane and other villagers. The methodology of the irrigation study will be described at length by Myrdal, in a forthcoming volume.

Although, as stated above, the planned coring program could not be implemented during the 1989 and 1990 season, tank archaeology was not restricted to surface investigations only. While in the field, it was decided to dig two test pits in the bund of the abandoned Sigiri Mahavava, by far the largest irrigation tank of the research area. The main objective was to probe for material that could date the tank. The task was made considerably easier by choosing a site where the bund had breached (site SO. 21), but digging was very hard work. The labourers had to use a heavy crowbar to penetrate the well- built bund. From some of the layers, notably the cultural deposit immediately beneath the bund construction, charcoal was sampled for analysis (see below). Luckily the project had the opportunity to investigate the bund of the Talkote Pahalavava with very little effort, as it happened that the bund was rebuilt during the fieldwork pe­ riod, when it was trenched to let out the water, so that a caterpillar was able to work inside the tank. Thus we got an entire section through the bund. A sociology student, Kamal Herath, did a series of inter­ views on irrigation facilities with the former vel vidane of six villages in the study area. These results will be referred to by Myrdal in a forthcoming volume. The ethno-archaeological study of food procurement tech­ niques, intimately connected to the irrigation studies which commenced in the second field season was, to a great extent, carried out through interviews. This program is described by Myrdal and associates in a separate section below.

Test excavations

The first season of excavation was in 1989. There were 17 test pits excavated in 9 different locations (8 in Talkote, 5 in the Eastern Precinct, 2 on Mapagala and 2 adjacent to Mapag- ala in the Sigiri Mahavava bund). The levels of the Sigiriya grid system were transferred to the different sites and free-standing grid systems were estab­ lished with theodolite, or a level instrument equipped with gradient. Pits 2x2m were demarcated and surface finds were collected separately. Digging was done by a team of labourers with trowels and small pick-axes and, as a rule, the soil was sieved. The teams tried to excavate stratigraphically, but as the layers often had a thickness of several decimeters, they were also subdivided into arbitrary spits of 5-10cm thickness. The levels of each layer interface and arbitrary spits were taken before the excavation could proceed. Structural remains, if any, were photographed, drawn to scale (1:20), levels indicated, and described for documenta­ tion. After virgin soil was reached, sections were drawn and described and soil samples collected. Pits were marked in site plans or, as in the case of sites SO. 10 and SO. 25-28, in a master plan of the central and northern parts of Talkote village (map nos. 6:4 and 6:8).

Excavations on a larger scale

The test-excavations gave only a comprehension of the nature of cultural deposition, stratigraphic sequences and state of preservation in the area, i.e. we gained experience of how to dig rural sites in the Dry Zone. At the outset of our third fieldwork season we still knew nothing about rural construc­ tional remains, dating, material standard etc. of the sites kn­ own to us. In the field season of 1990, excavations were generally carried out on a somewhat larger scale than before. The test excavations of the preceding season naturally formed the basis of knowledge when sites were chosen for excavation. With so many unknown factors at play and the short time-span of only three or four additional fieldwork seasons, it became necessary to choose sites that had indications of differing chronological, technological and social variables. Four different sites were chosen. Two of these were exten­ sions of very promising test pits excavated in 1989: the Aligala mesolithic site and the Tammannagala village site. The mesolithic camp site at Aligala is situated within the area that later became the citadel part of the Sigiriya complex, on the eastern side of the rock. This was not the first time mesolithic remains had been encountered in the lowland Dry Zone of Sri Lanka (see Adikari this volume), but it was the very first attempt to do some structured, problem-oriented research on the subject (see Karunaratne and Adikari this volume). The other was within the very promising ancient village site at Tammannagala, on the southern outskirts of Talkote. It is not only a very large settlement site with a relatively deep stratigraphy, but it is situated in a ‘model’ gamgoda position at the southern end of the Talkote Ihalavava. The connection to the vava is still mainly spatial; we know nothing about the age of the tank itself, but if it can be dated, we might also get a notion of the age of the gamgoda locations (see further discus­ sions in Mogren: ’’The Archaeology of Talkote" this volume). The importance of this excavation is that it is the first attempt to excavate a village site in Sri Lanka, and it should be re­ garded as an attempt to get acquainted with an archaeological record absolutely unknown until then. The excavation met severe setbacks through the interven­ tion of termites: about one-fifth of the very extensive pottery assemblage had to be left out of the analysis, since the bags and labels were destroyed by the uncompromising little crea­ tures before in-depth analysis could be carried out. A prelimi­ nary recording was made prior to the termite attack.

In Sweden there are no termites, but a similar problem has been met: mildewing cardboard labels. For a number of years, a system of aluminium tabs, punched in advance with the signum of the excavation and a running-number series has been in use. Extra information required could be inscribed with a pin, but is preferably kept in a separate register. It may be worth considering a similar system to counteract termite problems in Sri Lanka. In spite of those setbacks in the Tammannagala excava­ tion, it produced some good results (see Somadeva and Kas- thurisinghe this volume). The somewhat bewildering results from the test pits ex­ cavated on top of Mapagala, and the lucky coincidence of finding a settlement site beneath the bund of the Sigiri Ma- havava, just south of Mapagala, urged us to continue the re­ search regarding this important, but largely unknown central place. Working on a hypothesis that the ‘cyclopean’ walls of Mapagala represented a phase of local authority earlier than the Kasyapan palace of Sigiriya, we were attempting to pr­ oduce a chronologically more differentiated view of social stratification and administration than had previously been at hand. It can be stated here that we were successful and that the excavation produced results that have given the area a greater stretch of a contiguous political history than before. The ex­ cavation was important also in a methodological sense, as it turned into a workshop on stratigraphical analysis. This aspect of work also produced good results in that it was a sound practical training for the participating archaeologists in the intricacies of the Harris matrix method (see Kumaradasa this volume). In choosing the fourth site, we thought it very important and timely to commence the long planned iron production study. The large site at Dehigaha-ala-kanda (KO. 14) close to the village of Alakolavava, was the natural choice. The survey for sites in the Kiri Oya valley in 1988 had revealed a number of slag sites, indicating very large scale iron production in the area (Manatunga 1990: 80-84; Manjusri 1990; Mogren 1990: 58-59). Other indicators of iron produc­ tion have been found, most notably the conical holes in at least ten different sites within the research area. The quartz waste that is found in close proximity to these conical holes, a result of crushing the ore-bearing rock and separating the ore, is another such indicator. During the subsequent seasons iron production sites were found in the three other main basins of our research area, and even though sites of this type have not been searched for systematically (until the 1992 season), these random examples prove that the ‘Sigiri Bim’ has been a major iron producing area of the ancient world. Should an islandwide survey be carried out, this would probably be valid for Sri

Lanka as a whole. The necessity for such a large scale survey for iron production sites cannot be over stressed. The Dehigaha-ala-kanda site was the one best known to us, so its choice was natural. It was lucky too, because the site proved not only to be very large but also extremely well preserved, and two years (1990-1991) of excavations have yielded excellent results. These will be presented at length in a separate, forthcoming volume of the project, but a brief and preliminary presentation of the excavation is given elsewhere in this volume by Forenius and Solangaarachchi.

THE 1991 SEASON

In 1991 large scale excavations were commenced at two new sites: the very promising remains of a mesolithic camp site in one of the caves of the Potana monastic site, between In- amaluva and Kimbissa; and the PHEH village site at Ib- bankatuva-Polvatta, apparently the settlement site to which the megalithic cemetery at Ibbankatuva belongs (see fig. 8:3). This settlement site was found in 1988 during the Cultural Triangle excavations and explorations at Ibbankatuva (Se- neviratne 1990, note 3). Both these sites, as well as Dehigaha- ala-kanda and the irrigation study sites, have been excavated as parts of the ‘dissertation-oriented’ second stage of the SARCP program, and will be published separately, but are presented in very brief preliminary outline elsewhere in this volume (Adikari; Karunaratne).

Figure 2:4 Map showing 1991 work sites.

Method and implementation problems in settlement excavations

There are a few aspects of the methodology of excavations which require further elaboration: firstly, the ground was more than often extremely hard to dig, so trowelling was impossible and we had to rely on pick-axes. Water was used extensively to soften the ground in the Dehigaha-ala-kanda excavation, but only to a limited extent in the other sites, because it made sieving difficult and flowing water, which may have enabled wet-sieving, was never at hand. Using pick-axes has its drawbacks of course; layer interfaces (which are in any case difficult to distinguish) may be damaged, not to mention structural remains and artefacts, but without these tools excavations are impossible. To be able, at least to some extent, to counteract this shortcoming, we advise a method of excavation where ar­ bitrary spits of 5cm or, in a few cases up to 10cm, are used, thus diminishing the possible risk of destroying a layer inter­ face. Of course, a strict stratigraphical excavation method sh­ ould be the fundamental strategy. Pottery and small finds should be collected separately for each arbitrary spit and/or stratigraphical unit. Levels of ‘spit interfaces’ should be me­ asured and documented. Connected to this is the fact that other than in exceptional situations, actual digging was not done by the research assis­ tants in the first year of excavations. Unskilled labour may acquire quite a high degree of sensitivity to shifts in the soil matrix, but they are not inclined to ask the relevant questions and may thus pick away an earthen floor or some other subtle structure without knowing it. This of course is an important source-critical aspect of the work that was done in 1989, but it need not be so in the future. Already in the 1990 season the extent to which the archaeologists carried out actual digging improved considerably, and from 1991 it has become compul­ sory. We think it advisable to abandon totally the old ‘super­ visor system’ and have the research assistants participating more in the physical work, thus acquiring a tactile sensitivity to changes in the soil matrix. This would improve the scientific standard of Lankan archaeology considerably. One practical consideration could be worth mentioning: in our excavations, the amount of pottery found has by far ex­ ceeded our expectations. This has created a problem in the handling of the material. Extra shelter for the pottery had to be provided very much ad hoc, and a lot of extra manpower had to be transferred to the pottery registration unit. It would be wise to plan future excavations of settlement sites according to these experiences, i.e. to make sure there is enough storage room and manpower available before starting to dig. It would also be wise to refrain from excavations that are not absolutely problem-oriented. This also goes for the sampling done th­ rough walking explorations. Only a few potsherds, necessary for establishing the character of the site, should be collected. It would reduce the storage and handling problem, and further­ more, pottery is of higher value to future research in its or­ iginal site than in a storage room, where nobody has the time to attend to it and the termites, perhaps, will eat the labels and make them useless.

Mapping

Apart from the mapping that was done in the Talkote area, supportive to the excavations, a large-scale mapping project was carried out in the Ramakale monastic complex, by a sub-unit headed by Jayarathne Sooriyagoda, in 1989. A free­ standing grid-system was established from a zero line running north-south, the entire area (comprising 340,000m2) was ex­ plored, all structural remains were plotted in a master plan of the area and detail drawings made. The Ramakale area is covered with dense vegetation (secondary forest) so the work involved the participation of a large contingent of labourers for clearing traverse lines (at every 50th meter) and structures. This research will be reported on separately. Work at Ramakale was stopped directly after the October 8 incident. Thus the mapping could not be completed within the limits of the main field season, but was resumed later and finalized in late December. Out of the Ramakale team, a number were chosen to form an independent mapping unit, headed by Lalani Amaratunge and Deepani Edirisooriya. During May and June 1990 this unit carried out a similar operation in the so-called ‘archaeological forest’ at the Pidurangala Temple. The remains of the free­ standing monastic complex was mapped on a master plan and detail drawings made. At this stage of the fieldwork the mapping team had de­ veloped into a fairly skilled unit, so it was kept intact during the 1990 main field season as well and used for extensive mapping operations in Mapagala and Dehigaha-ala-kanda.

Epigraphic studies

The study of the epigraphy of the research area, undertaken by the field director Raj Somadeva, comprised the making of estampages. During the main field season of 1989 alone, 107 estampages were made and a total of 299 estampages made during the timespan of the project. These include inscribed bricks. Of them, a large number were unknown to archa­ eologists before the outset of our project (see Somadeva this volume). Somadeva has been working systematically with a type of ‘field epigraphy’ that may very well stand as a model for future investigations. A complete catalogue and an in- depth analysis of the epigraphical evidence of the region will be published as a separate monograph.

Vegetation survey

In commencing the extensive ecological study of the research area, a vegetation study in the secondary forest at Ramakale was carried out by T.R. Premathilake. Later similar work was carried out at Pidurangala and Ibbankatuva. The method and results of these surveys are presented in a separate volume (Epitawatte and Premathilake forthcoming). Paleobotanical investigations have been carried out by Pr­ emathilake in connection with the Potana mesolithic camp site excavation during the 1991 season, and will be presented in the monograph on that sub-project.

Analyses

Osteological analysis of the bones and molluscs from the Aligala excavation (see P.B. Karunaratna 1989 unpubl.), was done at a preliminary stage by R.M.M. Chandraratna and later by P.B. Karunaratna and Kelum Nalinda, at the PGIAR, in Colombo. Charcoal has been sampled at all the excavated sites and sent to Sweden for 14C analysis. The analysis using the ac­ celerator method is being carried out at The Svedberg Lab­ oratory, Uppsala University, by a team headed by Goran Possnert. (A few samples have also been analysed at the Laboratory for Isotope Geology at the National Museum for Natural History, Stockholm, using the conventional method.) A short description of the preparatory treatment and the re­ sults, including calibrations, are presented in appendix II be­ low, called "14C-datings". Soil samples are collected as a rule from all the excavated sites. A soil sample register has been maintained and the samples, are kept stored at Sigiriya, in advance of floatation. Some sediment samples, taken in an exposed section from the bottom layers of the collapsed Peikkulam tank, were prepared for pollen analysis at the Central Board of National Antiq­ uities, Uppsala, Sweden, by Ingemar Pohlsson. The pre-treat- ment of the samples was made according to the traditional acetolysis method, i.e. dispersion in KOH, removal of cel­ lulose with 9ml C4H6O3 + 1ml H2SO4 (acetolysis) and, in the present case, removal of minerogenic matter with HF. The microscopical investigation has shown that the pollen material is in a very good state of preservation. Hence further pollen analytical investigations may give important contributions to the development of the cultural landscape (as informed by Ingemar Pohlsson).Slag and to some extent iron ore were sampled whenever encountered in field-walking and at excavations; furnace wall fragments and tuyeres were also sampled. In addition to this, during a geological mapping of the area, as a part of his work for an M.Phil. Research Project in geo-archaeology, five sets of samples have been collected by Ranjith L. Dias of the Mahaweli Authority. The samples have been collected in the search for the iron ore and flux mineral sources of the De- higaha-ala-kanda iron production. A large number of samples from the project work have been taken to Sweden for analysis. The analysis is being carried out at the Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, by Dag Noreus of the Department of Structural Chemistry, Stockholm University, and his staff. Noreus has also visited the Dehigaha-ala-kanda site twice, during ongoing excavations in 1990 and 1991, which has enabled him to take part in the sampling as well as carry out these analyses in an extraordinarily problem-oriented way. Gert Magnusson of the Archaeological Department of Stock­ holm University, has also visited the site twice and taken an active part in discussions on the analyses. A detailed report on the chemistry of Dehigaha-ala-kanda and adjacent iron-pr­ oduction sites will soon be published in a separate monograph on the excavations.

STRATEGIES FOR THE FUTURE

In retrospect, we all think that a surprisingly large volume of research work came out of the project, despite the tensions of the late 1980’s, but there is no denying that several objectives were left unfulfilled. Had conditions been more conducive, a much broader data base would have been at hand for spatial analyses, and the opportunity to explore in remote areas as well would have been available. These constraints on exploration also affected the training program, for in 1988, when most of the field-walk­ ing was done, only a handful of students participated in the project work. Most of them later left the project for various reasons and did not take part in the excavation program. In 1989, 35 students participated under very trying conditions, but very few of them had had, or got, any exploration practice. The group was enlarged to 53 students in 1990. In order not to lose pace in the general training program and out-research strategies, it was decided to concentrate the bulk of effort on large scale excavation, so exploration training was negligible and the results merely marginal and complementary. As 1990 was also the last year of the general ‘field school’, in order to get qualitative as well as quantitative results out of the SARCP, we decided to let year four and five become ‘dissertation-oriented’. At the same time it was decided to make a proposal to SAREC to extend the project time-span for an extra year, totalling six years. The main objective of these three last years was to foster research for a number of Ph.D. and M.A. dissertations, based on results obtained within the SARCP. It is open to controversy whether a country like Sri Lanka should strive to educate a broad base of knowledgeable ar­ chaeologists, or a qualified apex of young, well qualified re­ searchers. The truth is that there is no simple answer. A total effort to bring out a broad base will most certainly be benefi­ cial to the general understanding of historical values and to heritage management, and probably also to the quest towards a total survey of sites, which is very much needed in countries like Sri Lanka. However, a generation of ‘barefoot archa­ eologists’ will produce almost no research at all of internation­ al value, which would leave the field totally open to foreigners to draw all the relevant conclusions and gain all the academic credit. One of the main objectives of SARCP is to counteract such a situation. The best thing to do therefore, is to work towards both quantity and quality. The ‘dissertation-oriented’ second phase is therefore consistent with the original project layout. This phase, in one sense, was initiated in 1990. The Aligala and Dehigaha-ala-kanda excavations started that year will es­ tablish foundations for M.A. research. This work was con­ tinued in 1991, the first year of the second phase proper. Aligala was followed by the excavation of the larger Potana site; and at Dehigaha-ala-kanda a second field season yielded results that partly changed the views and deductions of 1990. The continuation of fieldwork in the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region can be divided into two separate phases: intra-SARCP work and post-SARCP work. The objectives of the final years of the project can be sketched by a foreign consultant, of course, but when it comes to post-SARCP work, nothing ex­ cept suggestions, based on previous experiences, can be sub­ mitted - a suggestion that must remain personal, placing nobody under any obligations, but nevertheless a serious-mi­ nded contribution, for what it is worth. Intra-SARCP fieldwork will be reduced considerably from 1992 onwards. In the 1992 season only two new tasks will be attempted. The irrigation study program will continue for yet another season, comprising a ‘well survey’, intending to col­ lect datable material from wells dug within the ancient Sigiri Mahavava, and an effort to solve the riddles of the man-made canal running between Vavalavava and the environs of the Sigiriya-Diyakapilla road. The iron production study will concentrate on a survey for production sites in the Mirisgoni Oya basin in 1992, with a view to gaining a better understanding of the physical and social parameters of the iron industry of the region. This sur­ vey may also form a pilot study for a suggested iron produc­ tion site survey on a national scale, a task that can never be part of SARCP, since the scope of such a study is much larger than the Swedish-Lankan archaeology collaboration was ever in­ tended to be. SARCP merely wants to indicate how such a study could be undertaken by doing it on a micro scale. The irrigation study may be supplemented by a limited test excavation program, in an attempt to connect the results ob­ tained from investigating the irrigation facilities proper with their spatially related settlement sites. Whether any other fieldwork will take place at all during 1993 is still undecided. Possibly some spillover from earlier seasons, in the form of unfinished research tasks, might come up on the agenda, but that will be limited to checking on missing details. One objective from the very first season of fieldwork was partly carried out outside the SARCP framework: further in­ vestigations regarding the so-called ‘Maradanmaduva-Tabbo- va’ culture (Mogren 1990: 52), that is, the primitive terracottas known from a number of sites in Sri Lanka, most notably in the Vanni district (see distribution map in Nanda -deva 1990: 220). Within the research area of SARCP, this type of terracottas is known from five different sites. The best known, which also have yielded the largest material, are Ilukvava (Nandadeva 1990) and Manavava (Manatunga 1990 b). An investigation of the Manavava site was conducted in 1992 by Anura Ma­ natunga, former field director of SARCP. The main objectives in the two last years of the project (1993/94) are to concentrate on the field data, analyses, report writing and publishing. It is our intention that all the publica­ tions will be available by June 30th 1994, after which date the project will be closed. By now the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region, archaeologically, is probably the best known micro-region of the island; but the archaeological potential of the area is so enormous that this six-year project must be regarded only as a launching pad for further research. The results from SARCP can best be de­ veloped further by framing the relevant questions to the mat­ erial and following up with concentrated, problem-oriented research. What is primarily needed as soon the Lankan col­ leagues are left on their own (or preferably even before that) is the follow-up of the survey results from previous years; a number of sites, especially in the Kiri Oya basin, remain to be plotted accurately and their extents delineated. In addition to that work, it would be of great interest to have yet another detail survey, like that of Talkote, carried out in the Vavala area. That region yields new sites each time it is revisited, especially iron production sites. This area is now being re-cultivated at a steady pace, so new evidence is being brought to the surface in our time and runs the risk of being destroyed forever.

The new generation of Lankan archaeologists and their parent institutions must also make it their responsibility to follow up the SARCP fieldwork by regular revisits to the area. The chena are being shifted every year and previously inacces­ sible areas are thus opened up for surveying. As such, new data that will supplement our studies substantially is likely to occur in years to come. In the future problem-oriented research can be manifold in this area. One such example might be suggested here: the Tammannagala excavation of 1990 yielded datings for the settlement layers which suggest a rather early date for the so-called gamgoda positions of villages, i.e. at one end of a tank bund. With the Talkote Ihalavava at hand, it could be fruitful to use this problem as an opportunity to develop the coring methodology for the dating of irrigation structures, an objective set up for SARCP, but one we never could carry out within the project framework (see above). It is important to find out whether the Tammannagala settlement (which did give up a few microliths) was the genesis of the tank, or whether it was established after the tank had been constructed. Another very important task could be a comparative study of settlement sites, like Tammannagala and Ibbankatuva-Pol- vatta, from the point of view of home economics. It could be fruitful to ask if one given site is ‘wealthier’ than another, i.e. is it reasonable to conclude that its inhabitants, at least partly, held a socially higher position in society than the neighbouring communities? It need not be so, but the veracity of such an assumption can be checked only by a detailed study of the artefact assemblages from the sites, most notably the pottery and especially the serving wares, which have been found to be the best wealth indicators in many other archaeological, his­ torical, ethnographical and sociological contexts (Smith 1987). It could thus be possible to establish a hierarchical grouping of contemporary sites, and one could add to this by intestigating other sites of the region. The quest could be pursued further by taking the proximity of monastic and administrative centres into consideration, co­ mparing sites with megalithic cemeteries with sites without megaliths, checking on the possibilities of craft specialization as the explanation for dissimilarities, and placing these sites and the result of this suggested problem-oriented research in the context of state-formation processes, etc. There are several other loose ends we shall have difficulty in knitting together within the project framework for example, the pollen and macro-fossil research scheduled at the outset. The potential is there, as has been shown by a cursory look at the sediment layers from Peikkulam, where the preservative conditions proved to be very adequate; both pollen and seeds were found in these layers in amounts that were sufficient for has been made in isolating pollen not only from soil, but from bricks, by Premathilake, paleobotanist of the project, so we can discern an existing development in that field also. In addition, the experience gained from research in Sw­ eden and elsewhere, clearly states that ecofacts, such as macro­ fossil and animal bones, when preservation conditions are beneficial, are much better indicators of socio-economic rela­ tions in a given setting than artefacts, as they are much easier to quantify (see for example Mogren in press). Thus the quan­ tification of paleobotanical (as well as paleozoological) data should become a major objective. In the future, resources may be made available to PGLAR or any other institution, to try to map the invisible ancient irrigation landscape of the area by applying the method of near infra-red photography (see Nichols 1988) probably the only method that will provide a reliable picture. It can be done from an aircraft, or a satellite. Owing to restricted space, suggestions for future such re­ search must be sketchy. The proper research layout must (and should!) be drawn up by the Lankan researchers, who will have sole responsibility for this research from July 1994 on­ wards. Research designs for the future must not be restricted to the Sigiriya-Dambulla region. SARCP can be seen as a pilot study on how to design research (its success and achievements for others to assess) and the experiences gained have to be applied at national level. The necessity of carrying out an islandwide iron produc­ tion-site study has been hinted at above. The results from our study area, as well as from the Samanalavava project in Rat- napura district (Juleff 1990) and indications from other parts of the island, seem to suggest that Sri Lanka was one of the major iron producing regions of the ancient world. A study of these remains would be advantageous to the Lankan scientific body, not just for putting the country on the archaeo-metallurgical world map (where it certainly belongs), but also because the material has the potential of making Sri Lanka one of the major research centres in this field, with scope for a cross- scientific group of young scholars to undertake such a study with much profit. This approach at national level could be applied to survey­ ing for settlement sites in general, as well. As consultants to this project - and coming from Sweden, which probably has the most profound survey of archaeological sites in the world (started in the 1930’s and still continuing, it is now on its way to eradicating the last white patches on the archaeological map of Sweden) - we have realized the enormous advantage of such a survey and the register it produced. The register is a data base that has provided material for numerous doctoral dissertations through the years and has pushed forward the research - on settlement archaeology in particular - by great leaps and bounds. Sri Lanka has a much smaller land area than Sweden, so the task should be surmountable. From a personal point of view, I would even suggest that Sri Lanka concentrates on surface archaeology in the short and medium perspective, and leaves the sites untouched for a while. Even though we have not been able to train as many students in exploration techni­ ques as we would have wished, there are a number of good field archaeologists who have worked, or at present are work­ ing in our projects, who could form the core staff of such a survey. As a preliminary step, it would be advisable to estab­ lish a high-quality computer unit, because the data base ob­ tained will certainly be so enormous that old fashioned register systems would be unworkable and inadequate

Proposing a language, translation and reprint program

As consultants, asked to assist in building national research capabilities in Lankan archaeology, we have strongly felt the need and desire for deeper theoretical knowledge among the students. Most of that knowledge is available in the European languages, notably English, and if it is intended to allow the students to avail themselves of this knowledge, a good under­ standing of the theoretical texts, at least in English, is compul­ sory. It can be argued therefore, that courses in English would add considerably to the building of national research capabilities in Archaeology, as in most other disciplines. Dis­ cussions have been held within PGLAR and a program has been taking shape in collaboration with the Department of English at the University of Kelaniya. Other such programs have been started in Anuradhapura. The levels of language capability have also improved considerably. This effort of making the international texts available does not exclude the importance and necessity of translating some of the most essential works into Sinhala and Tamil. PGIAR, which is establishing editorial capabilities as one of the results of this project, has proved to be quite capable of administering and implementing such a program, the cost of which it should be possible to keep at a very moderate level. A series of three volumes of low-cost booklets has been published by PGIAR to date: 1. Deraniyagala 1991,2. Mogren 1991 and 3. Riederer 1991, (the last in co-operation with the Department of Ar­ chaeology). Such booklets, at a price students can afford, will make a great difference to the present situation. The contribu­ tion of this publishing project is strongly recommended. In a country with such a long record of archaeological and historical research as Sri Lanka, the necessity for making old and often rare works available is bound to arise. Much has already been achieved in this field by Lankan as well as foreign publishing houses. The Archaeological Departm launched a very ambitious reprint program in 1990, but the need for making available some of the older books, especially those texts that are in low demand by the general public, still exists. We feel PGIAR could make a valuable contribution in this field. These suggestions are put forth with awareness of a fund­ ing shortage, but they should be seen as general objectives for which funding must be raised sooner or later. If they are neglected, the ‘internalization’ of research will become very difficult.

Building national research capabilities: the changing attitudes

One of the major objectives of the project is to develop and ‘internalize’ national research capabilities in Sri Lanka, by training young archaeology students in field techniques (Ba- ndaranayake, Mogren and Epitawatte (eds.) 1990, "Preface": 10). In the first four years of work, considerable achieve­ ments have been made, most notably in establishing the con­ cept of settlement archaeology itself and in providing training in exploration, stratigraphic analysis and ‘reading the cultural landscape’. There is also another aspect of training and building of national research capabilities, which we may call the ‘attitude issue’. It can be argued that training in the field techniques of settlement archaeology would be of no use at all if the people doing the field work proper do not understand the necessity and importance of doing it. Thus we are trying to change the traditional attitude to basic production, menial work and the people who did it, as not being ‘glorious’ or worthy of sc­ holarly attention. One specific but excellent example is the lack of interest by scholars and students of the country in studying iron smelting (even though some attempts had been made prior to our project - see for example, Seneviratne 1987). Smelting was done by caste groups whose ranking came very low in the caste hierarchy - lower even than the blacksmiths, who have been neglected as well - and yet, we would argue, it has been of the utmost importance in creating the ancient Lankan ci­ vilization. With so many prominent smelting sites in the re­ search area, this project has had the opportunity of making a contribution to changing these traditional views and such a change is now clearly under way. Another such contribution has been made already by the ethno-archaeological study of food procurement techniques, carried out as part of the project (see Myrdal 1990 and below). At times, settlement archaeology is not very easy to grasp, even to scholars specializing in it. Hence any student who is new to this kind of research is fully excused for not understanding every aspect of the subject. It is our conviction that settlement archaeology is impossible to teach or learn only in the lecture room. In a project of this kind, however, where the research assistants have to carry out several different tasks and time is scarce, it is compulsory that everyone should know what he or she is doing. We feel, therefore, that a change in attitude is needed. Philip Barker has discussed this matter very eloquently in writing about site discipline: "The best site discipline is the careful balance of that which is self-imposed and that imposed from above; where all the members of the excavation do what they are told or what is required because they understand what they are doing, and the way it fits into the overall development of work rather than through unthinking obedience. It should be made clear to everyone that they are free to ask why they are doing what they are set to do, to question the need for doing it, or the way in which it is done." (Barker 1977:110-111). Barker’s conclusion, which is absolutely correct, is that when people do not understand what they are doing, they do a bad job. This, of course, places a heavy responsibility on the field directors and the consultants involved - and here we touch on another problem: the language constraint which we, as consultants, experience as the greatest constraint of all. Everyone is doing their best, however, and that is a large part of the battle won. A third aspect of the change of attitude is touched upon by Barker, in connection with what has been quoted above: "If paid non-archaeological labourers are used, they too should be given the background and purpose of the excavation if they are to work well and become members of the team." (Barker 1977: 11). In a situation where the paid, non-arch­ aeological labourers are digging in their own village, this aspect is given a new dimension and perspective: for it is their history we are investigating and we have no right to take it away from them. Thus we have an obligation to tell them of our results and try to help them understand why we are doing it. Without that effort we can never hope to have the local people’s support in the preservation of the total cultural he­ ritage of the country, and this is valid anywhere, whether in Sri Lanka or Sweden or elsewhere. In 1990 an exhibition was arranged with this aspect in mind and targeted exclusively at the village public of the area. It dealt with the work done in Talkote and was held in the village school. This must be seen as a tentative effort only, but we sincerely believe that this line of work must be pursued. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My first thought of gratitude goes to the members of the project team as a whole, for their ambitious attitude to ar­ chaeological work, their will and courage to cany out the project as fully as possible, and for their ever-encouraging friendliness. As an individual I have benefited immensely from discussions with the director, as well as the field team, the administrative, editorial and cartographic staff. This of course also includes my fellow consultants, Eva Myrdal and Svante Forenius, who have made decisive contributions to the progress of the project as a whole, as well as shaping substan­ tial sectors of the field program according to their expert knowledge. The special consultants of the iron production program, Gert Magnusson and Dag Noreus, both from the University of Stockholm and Ranjith Dias, of the Mahaweli Authority, have also been of immense value to the project. I wish also to mention Siran Deraniyagala, Pandula En- dagama, Gillian Juleff, C.R. Panabokke, Martha Prickett-Fer­ nando and Sudarshan Seneviratne, who have most kindly shared their knowledge on various subjects with us, for the benefit of the project; and Sirancee Gunawardana who assisted us in various ways, most notably as an interpreter. We are most obliged to them all. On behalf of the entire project I would also like to express our sincerest thanks to the villagers of Talkote, Diyakapilla, Alakolavava, Nagalavava and other villages, for putting up with our presence and intrusion for such a long time. They have been very patient and ever smil­ ing and the friendly relations we established in these villages have been of great value not only to meet the tasks that we set ourselves, but also to our general understanding of Sri Lanka.

REFERENCES

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Barker, P. 1977. Techniques of Archaeological Excavation. London: Batsford.

Deraniyagala, S.U. 1990. Pre-historic Sri Lanka. Paper pr­ esented at the World Archaeological Congress in Sout­ hampton 1986. Puravidiya Granthamala 1. (in Sinhala translation). Colombo: PGIAR.

Juleff, G. 1990. The Samanalawewa Archaeological Survey. Ancient Ceylon. 9\ 75-100.

Karunaratne, P.B. Report on an Ecological Survey of Forests and Identification of Faunal Remains from Archaeologi­ cal Sites Around Sigiriya. Unpublished Preliminary Sur­ vey Report. PGIAR Archives. Cat. No. 89/26.

Manatunga, A. 1990. The Kiri Oya Valley. The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Ban­ daranayake S., M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (eds.). Co­ lombo: PGIAR.

Manatunga, A. 1990b. The "Maradanmaduva-Tabbova" Cul­ ture terracottas found at Manavava in the vicinity of Ia- maluva. The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Bandaranayake S., M. Mo- gren and S. Epitawatte (eds.). Colombo: PGIAR.

Manjusri, M. 1990. Dehigaha-ala-kanda (KO14): a prehis­ toric habitation site, a monastic rock-shelter site and an iron production site in the Kiri Oya basin. The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Banda­ ranayake S., M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (eds.). Colom­ bo: PGIAR.

Mogren, M. 1990. Project Strategies: Methodologies and Pe­ rspectives. The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya- Dambulla Region. Bandaranayake S., M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (eds.). Colombo: PGIAR. \

Mogren, M. 1991. Settlement Archaeology. (Mogren 1990 in Sinhala translation). Puravidya Granthamala 2. Colom­ bo: PGIAR.

Mogren, M. (in print). The Faxeholm project: an archaeologi­ cal attempt to check on the normative sources regarding taxation. Castella Maris baltici 1. Turku.

Myrdal, E. 1990. Approaches to the Study of the Traditional Techniques Related to Food-Procurement. The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Banda­ ranayake S., M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (eds.). Colom­ bo: PGIAR.

Nandadeva, B.D. 1990. The Ilukvava terracotta figurines. The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Bandaranayake S., M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (eds.). Colombo: PGIAR..

Nichols, D.L. 1988. Infrared Aerial Photography and Prehis­ toric Irrigation at Teotihuacan: The Tlajinga Canals. Jo­ urnal of Field Archaeology. 15 (1): 17-27.

Riederer, J. 1991. Restoration and Preservation: Restaurieren und Bewahren. (Sinhala translation of original published in Munich 1989). Puravidya Granthamala 3. Colombo: PGIAR.

Seneviratne, S. 1987. Iron Technology in Sri Lanka: a Prelimi­ nary Study of Resource Use and Production Techniques During the Early Iron Age. The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities. Vol. XI, No. 1 & 2: 129-178.

Seneviratne, S. 1990. The locational significance of early Iron Age sites in intermediary transitional eco-systems: a preliminary survey study of the upper Kala Oya region, North-Central Sri Lanka. The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Bandaranayake S., M. M- ogren and S. Epitawatte (eds.). Colombo: PGIAR.

Smith, M. E. 1987. Household Possessions and Wealth in Agrarian States: Implications for Archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 6\ 297-335.

Wickremesekara, C. 1990. The Sigiri Oya and Mirisgoni Oya Basins. The Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dam­ bulla Region. Bandaranayake S., M. Mogren and S. Epi­ tawatte (eds.). Colombo: PGIAR.